Irony, Tradition, and Cohesion in Puccini’s Gianni Schicchi
By Mario Mazzoli
I. INTRODUCTION
Italian opera should not be analyzed or criticized in the same terms as north-European music, but rather in view of its dramatic scope and coherence. This is because Italian opera composers were primarily concerned with the dramatic efficacy of their works, rather than with experimenting with new techniques, or applying elaborate, pre-conceived architectural devices. Even those who fought this tendency at the end of the nineteenth century, such as Boito and the other so-called “Scapigliati,” functioned more as vessels of foreign influences than creators of original elements.
Puccini makes no exception: while certain passages of his recall the rhythmic/harmonic “extravaganzas” of such composers as Stravinsky, an attempt to exalt his language as purely innovative would result in failure. At the beginning of the twentieth century the Tuscan composer’s style, despite being very much influenced by the “fin de siecle” openness to alien forms of expression, was still strongly attached to the Italian lyrical tradition. Hence the overall resentment of many theorists who have addressed Puccini’s works as “fake” or “uninteresting.”
Conscious of the ongoing crisis of values, Puccini eventually entered (around 1910) a period of creative perplexity. One of the “aftermaths” of this period is Gianni Schicchi, a single-act comic opera which completes Il Trittico (premiered in New York, 1918) along with two other single-act works: Il Tabarro and Suor Angelica. If not innovative in its harmonic language, Gianni Schicchi, the creation of a mature composer, confident of his creative choices, undoubtedly represents an example of exceptional control of the dramatic matter, unprecedented in its cohesive solutions.
Based on a libretto by G.Forzano, originally inspired by the XXX Canto of Dante’s Inferno, the opera is set in Florence at the end of the thirteenth century. Members of the Donati family are mourning the death of their relative Buoso, but their real concern is for the rich inheritance, which Buoso left entirely to the church. The young Rinuccio then suggests letting the clever peasant Gianni Schicchi, whose daughter Lauretta he wants to marry, find a solution. Gianni, at first resistant because of the relatives’ low consideration of his rustic nature, is then convinced by his daughter, who needs to gain the favor of Rinuccio’s family. Figuring out that nobody else other than the family is aware of Buoso’s death, Gianni substitutes himself for the dead body and calls a notary to dictate a new will. Instead of distributing the inheritance among the members of the family, Gianni leaves the best goods to himself, causing the impotent relatives to leave in scorn and indignation. Gianni is now rich, and Rinuccio can finally marry Lauretta. Since in Divina Commedia Gianni is placed in hell for having disguised himself as Buoso, the opera ends with a speech of Gianni asking for the public forgiveness in exchange for having amused them.
Both music and libretto reference directly the Italian comic tradition. As in many eighteenth-century one-act farse or opere buffe many characters are derived from commedia dell’arte, i.e., Messer Spinelloccio, the doctor, who speaks in a Bolognese accent, or Gianni Schicchi himself, a smart peasant with a Florentine accent, a sort of Arlecchino. In accord with this buffo approach, all of the dull, “funny” characters, as the doctor or the notary, are set as basses, and the parlante[1] technique is used extensively. Additional comic elements seem to be inspired by Verdi’s Falstaff, such as the baritone protagonist or the presence of the two, young, dreamy lovers. Both Puccini and Forzano, however, do not rely on the colorful depiction of the characters as the most preeminent comic force, but instead concentrate on the antithetical impulses created by the development of the plot.
The musical language of the opera, while embracing both Italian tradition and foreign elements, is never self-indulgent or quixotic. Instead, every choice is made in support of the evolution of the plot, carefully depicting all of its sarcasm.[2] This original sentimentally “detached” characterization of the drama allows the author to create a work that is at the same time the denial and the quintessential expression of Italian opera. Death and love, Puccini’s “favorite” themes, are consistently mocked, as in a sort of ironic self-criticism: they are not untouchable sovereigns of the drama, but rather common elements to adopt as comedy sources. Yet they are indeed fundamental to the development of the opera, and at times portrayed with idyllic passion, as in a nostalgic remembering despite the comic purpose. This ironic dualism, as well as the interdependent buffo verve of the greedy/clumsy characters, is cleverly achieved through the juxtaposition of contrasting components, and is given musical congruity via the use of a systematic dramatic-formal design and of few motives/themes transformed throughout the opera.
II. STRUCTURE OF THE WORK
Gianni Schicchi, like Mascagni’s Cavalleria Rusticana, develops in real time: the events follow each other in a realistic order and pace. Unlike Mascagni’s, though, Puccini’s work is continuous: there are no conventional separate scenes or closed numbers. This is due to the linearity of the libretto’s design, which requires the constant presence of Buoso’s relatives on stage. Their reaction to the different circumstances articulates the evolution of the story line itself, and functions as a cohesive factor supported by the constant flow of the music. The only “closed” unit, encompassed between the end of the first stretta and the end of Lauretta’s aria “Oh mio babbino caro” -- which marks the separation between the presentation of the problem and the carrying out of the solving plan -- is nonetheless justified by the events, and therefore not identifiable as formal lacuna.
The constant musical flow, helped by the extensive use of parlante technique (or parlando) and by the absence of long traditional recitativi, has been associated with that of Wagner, whose concept of unity Puccini molds according to his own needs.
The overall formal scheme of Gianni Schicchi could be roughly outlined as follows:
Part I:
1. Parlante, Beginning to cue 7
2. Fast orchestral interlude, cue 7 to 10
3. Parlante with lyrical instances, cue 10 to one measure before 14
4. Orchestral interlude, one measure before 14 to 16
5. Primo Tempo and stretta (concertato), cue 16 to 24
6. Recitativo and parlante (ostinato), cue 24 to 28
7. Arioso and aria (stornello), cue 28 to six mm. after 33
8. Parlante and quartettoàconcertato, six mm. after 33 to 40
9. Aria (cantabile, prayer-like), cue 40 to 41
Part II:
1.
Orchestral Interlude with lyrical
instances, 41 to five mm. before 44
2.
Parlante-recitativo, five mm. before cue
44 to cue 48
3.
Arioso and aria (cabaret-like song) cue 48 to 52
4.
Stretta, cue 52 to 54
5.
Transition and Stretta (interrupted), cue 54 to two mm.
before 57
6.
Recitativo and trio (cantabile with pertichini),
two mm. before 57 to 4 mm. before 63
7.
Recitativo and duetto (between Gianni
and relatives), 4 mm. before 63 to 66
8.
Orchestral interlude and parlante, cue 66 to 71
9.
Orchestral interlude, parlante and stretta (interrupted), cue 71 to 77
10.
Recitativo-parlante (with lyrical
moments) and stretta cue 77 to 84
11.
Duetto cantabile and coda, cue 84 to End
From the above tentative chart, one may already notice how the composer is able to detach himself from the convention of Italian opera, framing traditional forms in a very unusual scheme. A closer look at the score reveals how the traditional forms themselves are treated unconventionally, so that labeling them in the above manner may be considered inappropriate. Yet I believe such nomenclature reasonable for the inherent characteristic of such pieces. I.e., one may argue that pezzo concertato or ottetto would be more proper labels for the passage running from cue 16 to 24, for two principal reasons: the introduction of cue 16, which consists of a “dialogue” between the relatives based on regular endecasillabi, is more characteristic of a primo tempo, which usually precedes a pezzo concertato; moreover, strette are generally found at the and of an act. The fast paced, rhythmic, conclusive[3] quality of the moment, in which the relatives complain about the loss of the inheritance, is however more associable with that of a stretta, especially in a comic context.
An examination of the positioning of the strette within the framework of the opera, having in mind the described characteristics of such passages, is indicative of an important generative principle of Gianni Schicchi: the contrast fast-slow.
The periodical insertion of fast sections, which always involve Buoso’s relatives, functions both as a cohesive device, as it creates an energy that justifies the following relaxation needed to the exposition of subsequent events, and as a comic device, underlining the dull impulsivity of the relatives as opposed to Gianni’s astute rationality and the lovers idyllic state.
Another preeminent coagulant, the orchestra, has in Gianni Schicchi a peculiar role. As the chart shows, the piece contains three instrumental sections. These interludes support the un-sung scenic actions, eventually emphasizing the comic element, i.e., the maniac impulsivity of the relatives (as in Section 2, Part I, the “search” passage). The most precious peculiarity of Puccini’s, though, consists in the use of the orchestra as an element of contrast: sometimes, as in the fundamental parlante sections that characterize the narrative moments, the orchestra functions as counterpoint to the action, guiding the audience to the actual meaning of the ongoing scenic circumstances.[4] This device helps establish the necessary mood throughout the entire opera, and contributes in emphasizing the idea of subtle detachment presented above.
The awareness of the role of the orchestra and that of fast vocal sections, seems to confer a method on the apparent madness of the opera’s formal scheme: perhaps one could identify in the tension/momentum/release model the overall governing principle of Gianni Schicchi, both on small and on a large scale. On a small scale the strette are sometimes substituted by fast orchestral interludes. The first three sections of the first Part, for instance, realize the model through the use of the orchestra. While the tension is slowly built by the rumor of the lost inheritance, momentum is gathered by a fast orchestral passage during the search of the will, and finally the tension is released by the quasi-arioso passage of Rinuccio, who finds the will.[5] The large-scale application of the dramatic model is slightly more complex to define, but still prominent.
The two young lovers, Rinuccio (tenor) and Lauretta (soprano), are characterized in the libretto by a more regular versification (generally endecasillabi and settenari), and a more traditional, romantic vocabulary, almost archaically idyllic. The music parallels the libretto as it assigns to the two the most lyrical, in a conventional sense, gestures. In this view they represent the most obvious of Puccini’s references to the tradition, and his nostalgic memoir of free-spirited sentimentalism At the same time, though, their expression of feeling is always portrayed as excessively ebullient or childish: Lauretta’s aria “Oh, mio babbino caro” , which is actually a self contained cantabile (two quartine of settenari, rhyming abcb, plus two more free settenari), is exaggerated, almost out of context in the sudden tragedy of the threatened suicide as opposed to the child-like, immature characterization of the girl (who likes her boyfriend because he is “bello bello”). To emphasize this aspect, Puccini rendered the passage with extreme simplicity (diatonic harmonies and parallel binary form, slightly extended in the A’ section, plus a small coda), and with a lush orchestration (with different layers of strings doubling the melody and the typical harp arpeggios of Italian arias).
Paradoxically, then, their love, concretized in their gorgeous lirismo, while being the most “Italian” feature of Gianni Schicchi as an opera, provides rational meaning to the authors’ self-irony and to the overall essence of the work: it is love that calls the presence of Gianni on stage (the tension); it is love that justifies Gianni’s involvement in the bluff (the momentum); and it is love that finally gives a cathartic, although sarcastic release to the epilogue of the opera.
Let us now more closely examine a portion of the opera, namely that “closed” section mentioned above, to achieve a better understanding of Puccini’s formal treatment of the essential operatic constituents. The passage is particularly relevant because it provides the apotheosis of the above described problematic of love: perhaps for this reason it is emphasized by a more clear definition of its boundaries, and it is closer to traditional operatic structures than the rest of the work.
After a cadence followed by a fermata, we are introduced to the section (6 in the chart) by one of the few instances of pure recitativo, as opposed to parlante. The recitativo releases the tension of the previous stretta, introducing the possibility of a change in the will. As soon as Rinuccio suggests Gianni as possible solution, a new tension is created: the opposition of the relatives to the presence of Gianni Schicchi. Rinuccio’s interventions, as it was since the beginning, are characterized by melodic grace[6] even if, in this case, the versification of the recitativo is free from schemes as much as that of the other characters. Among the relatives (who are often characterized as one entity) the primary role is given to Zita, who represents here the primary antagonist, yet lacking a true melodic identification. The mention of Gianni is supported by a parlante-ostinato transition, in which the enraged parents grumble in a sort of pseudo-canon. A brief return to pure recitativo anticipates Rinuccio’s long intervention in defense of Gianni: first an arioso, fairly conventional in shape, in which the mimic description of the clumsy appearance of Gianni clashes with Rinuccio’s romantic lines, creating a humorous effect; subsequently the arioso is followed by a stornello[7].
The solo passage, of unusual length compared to Puccini’s usual tenor numbers, not only has the specific function of convincing the relatives[8], but also allows the support of the ironic depiction of the enthusiastically patriotic young man, as opposed to the materialistic relatives who completely disregard his words. In this respect, the contrasting choice of fanfare-like rhythms, with an emphasis on brasses, within the folk-like environment of the stornello and its romantic, quasi-pastoral verses, consistently organized within the libretto in rhyming couplets of endecasillabi, is particularly effective. The song is in sectional ternary form, the central section (two periods: 16 plus 8 mm. with pick-up) balancing the length of the sum of the outer two (each consisting of 8 plus 4 mm. with pick-up). Despite the harmonic equilibrium of tonic-dominant-tonic organization, suggesting the return of the A section, the passage is melodically through composed, so that the last section rather results in an evolution of the preceding two, suggesting an A-B-C scheme; this will be discussed later in greater depth. The singing style corresponds to the typical Puccini approach to solos, with sudden dramatic projections into the higher range of the voice. This aspect, which also characterized Lauretta’s aria, helps knit the two halves together.
A small instrumental coda allows the composer to slide directly into the next segment, in which Gianni finally arrives on stage. At first the protagonist receives an overview of the situation, supported by musical references to the preceding sections: starting with the descriptive parlante, a citation of the previous stretta then emphasizes the problem of Buoso’s will. The tension initially created by the unwanted Gianni’s presence is thus re-stated again by Zita, so that after a brief transition the actual quartet begins. Gathering momentum with a fast passage, which has the character of the above strette but is more contrapuntal in nature, with longer vocal lines, the audience’s attention is focused on the quarrel between Zita and Gianni. As the hope for eternal love of the two youngsters begins fading way, however, the attention is shifted to them with the arrival of a lyrical passage starting in unison, as more reflective of the concertato character of the passage. The intervention of the remaining relatives then transforms the quartetto into a literal concertato (everybody is singing), bringing back the focus towards the quarrel. The relatives' attempt to concentrate on the will, though, allows the two lovers to try a last attempt to convince Gianni to stay. In a transition similar to the previous one, the first unsuccessful try is Rinuccio’s, in parlante.
With regard to this whole passage, Puccini’s setting of the libretto is quite interesting. During the entire sequence, the lovers’ romantic language preserves the usual regularity, primarily rhyming settenari, while the other characters are assigned more colloquial, irregular verses. In the libretto, though, the fading away of the lover’s hope is placed after Gianni’s offenses to Zita, but before their “final resolution” (Gianni willing to leave and Zita dismissing him). This may have suggested the introduction of a romantic duet between Rinuccio and Lauretta. Avoiding this solution and overlapping the events, Puccini cleverly deflects a possible hiatus in the tension/release model, and creates instead a perfect opportunity for delivering momentum.
With “Oh mio Babbino Caro,” the tension of the “scene” is finally released, as Gianni is in fact convinced. The ingenuous simplicity of the song, which with obtuse prejudice has often been mistaken as a “sell-out” expedient to gain public favor, can be understood and appreciated in view of the already discussed ironic scheme.
In a sense, the overall structure of the “closed” passage can be paralleled with the conventional architecture of Italian opera’s numbers, and one may speculate that the composer intended to deliver an ironic reference to the tradition. In this view, the initial recitativo would correspond to a scena scheme. Then Rinuccio’s solo would refer to the tempo d’attacco and cantabile. The tempo di mezzo would then be imitated in the chart’s section 8. “Oh mio Babbino caro” would finally correspond to the cabaletta. Obviously this is only a conjecture, especially due to the considerable inherent differences of the sections and their traditional correspondents.
III. THEMATIC/HARMONIC CONGRUITY
As already emphasized, one should not expect to find true innovation in Puccini’s musical language, as its principal constituents appear to be essentially bound to the Verismo tradition. Among these elements, the most immediately perceivable are the regularity of the musical phrasing, often based on four-bar cells despite the superimposition of at times irregular vocal lines, and the harmonic vocabulary, still strongly based on tonality despite the clear influence of foreign more advanced techniques. One may identify the French and Russian turn of the century practices as the most prominent sources of linguistic diversity. Typical Puccini “foreign” devices may be: the frequent tonicizations; the use of ninth/thirteenth chords; the use of non-tonal collections such as the pentatonic or whole-tone; the use of polytonality, parallel harmonies, and free chromaticism. Generally speaking, these devices may be found in fast-paced sections, or in those sections where a grotesque sort of humor is sought[9]. All of these features, however, combined with the Italian tradition and the author’s beautifully crafted romantic lines, provide a distinctive timbre to Puccini’s music.
The motivic treatment in Gianni Schicchi may also be placed somewhere in between the Italian operatic standards and a foreign influence: that of Wagner. Despite not being as methodical as the German master, Puccini generates most of the opera’s music from a few motivic cells. His technique goes beyond what A.Basevi[10] would refer to as “Tinta.” Perhaps it could be more appropriately defined as “motivic molding,” since it does not respect the customary techniques of motivic variation (i.e., transposition or augmentation), but freely interprets them to achieve subtle connections.
From the very beginning of the opera, we are presented the most
prominent melodic devices: descending seconds, thirds, and repeated notes. The
motive that forms the main narrative ostinato consists of three couplets of
descending seconds, the first repeated and the third continuing the scale-like
motion of the second, to form a four-note descending scale. A second instance
of the gesture, separated via an ascending third, completes the main unit of
the ostinato. This figuration, presented in the key of Bb major, permeates the
majority of the parlante sections,
establishing the overall light-humoristic mood of the work: while the
descending motion and the repetitiveness provide a sort of mournful effect, the
major key reveals its real function. This melody embodies the contrapuntal
function of the orchestra, which contrasts the supposedly funeral-like mood of
the stage setting. It is almost as an external viewer, mocking the characters’
fake anguish for the loss of their relative and underlining Puccini’s
self-ironic joke on the theme of death, while its repetitiveness also
emphasizes the relative’s dullness. 
Example 1. The beginning of the “narrative” theme as a
combination of the three prominent motivic cells.
Sixteen measures after the beginning, the second important gesture appears. It is presented here as a sequence of thirds, with repetition of the first note and octave displacement of the segment starting from Bb. This almost pastoral motive, with its energetic conclusive dotted rhythm, seems to anticipate the astuteness of the peasant Gianni, adding dynamism and more comic flair to the narrative ostinato.
Example 2. The first appearance of the
“pastoral” motive.
Repetition is utilized in the funeral drum roll starting at measure 22. This supports the setting, contrasting with the already established comic environment, and conforming the relatives to the urban-ceremonious society that they represent.
Given all the principal elements, it is now possible, at any point in the score, to recognize their pervasive presence, through which apparently unrelated musical elements are given not only semantic, but also compositional coherence.
Let us examine, as an example, the motivic congruity of the already familiar portion of Gianni Schicchi: sections 6 to 9 on the chart.
After the brief recitativo introduction, Rinuccio calls Gianni to the attention of the relatives. The figure associated with the name of the protagonist is a direct derivation of the “pastoral’ motive, and will represent Gianni until the end of the opera. Disregarding the rhythm, which is dictated by the prosodic accents, one can compare the melodic contours of the “pastoral” motive and Gianni’s motive, noticing that, if the first two notes are removed from the earlier gesture, they basically coincide: while descending thirds remain the primary element, the ascending fourth (at first generated by octave displacement) is expanded into a fifth, most likely to fit the diatonic context. This is a perfect example of “motivic molding,” as described above. Gianni’s motive eventually permeates the following parlante section, as the orchestral ostinato initiates a pattern of repeating minor thirds (at times enharmonically spelled).[11] The interdependence of the two motives is underlined by the repetition, at the end of the ostinato, of an instance of the pastoral motive.
Example 3. Comparison between pitch
ordering in the “pastoral” motive and in Gianni’s motive.
Rinuccio’s arioso, describing Gianni’s features, while utilizing extensively Gianni’s motive, introduces a new one. The new motive, supporting the word motteggiatore (“scoffer”) could be labeled as “scoff” motive, considering that it also concludes the opera, and is built on a combination of all three devices. With a predominance of repeated notes, it is concluded via a series of two thirds inverted with respect to the beginning of the “pastoral” motive. The element of a second is also inverted, and perhaps this expresses the contrast between Gianni’s character and the relatives. Played by brasses, the motive also sustains Rinuccio’s patriotism.
Example 4. First appearance of the “scoff”
motive.
The stornello, in the key of Bb, shows as well a consistent use of the primary motives. As every phrase is shaped from different moldings and combinations of them (i.e., the initial ascending seconds, which, as well as Gianni, differentiates Rinuccio from the other relatives), particular relevance is given to the cadential elements of each phrase. These provide the cohesive factor to the internal, through-composed form of the song. The last four notes of the second bar of the song may be defined as a molding of the second part of the “pastoral” motive (i.e., Gianni’s motive). More specifically we find them organized in a series of different intervals, yet preserving the same contour: an ascending motion followed by two descending ones. At the end of the second phrase this gesture acquires a shape closer to the original: an upward leap of a fourth followed by a descending second and a descending third; this hypothesis is supported by the first part of the phrase, which corresponds with the initial thirds of the “pastoral” theme, with interleaved passing tones. At the end of the third phrase the gesture is modified in an ascending third followed by two descending seconds. This particular figure can also be associated with the central portion of the “narrative” motive, where an ascending third anticipates the second descending scale. A retrograde-inverted instance of this last figure is then reiterated at the end of the A section of the song.
Example 5. Moldings of “pastoral” motive’s melodic contour in the cadential gestures of
Rinuccio’s aria, A section (each appearance located at phrase ending).
The importance of these motives is emphasized in the transition between the A and B section, which anticipates Lauretta’s theme. Being the daughter of Gianni, her melody is built in a similar fashion: the first phrase has the same contour of her father’s motive, although with different intervals (an upward third followed by a fourth and seconds); the second phrase of the girl’s theme consists of an inversion of the last gesture performed by Rinuccio, confirming the bond between the two lover.
Example 6. The moldings of Gianni’s
(“pastoral” tail) motive in Lauretta’s theme.
The B-section of the song is also largely built upon expansions of motives found in the A-section. On may notice how the initial upward scale, and the following reference to the second cadential gesture of the A-section, are reflective not only of motivic congruity, but also of a large-scale design of the aria that relates to the small-scale structure of the first segment. This observation is confirmed by the material of the C-section, in which the third cadential gesture is expanded to acquire a new identity, hence the label C, while preserving its original shape.
Example 7. Expansions of previous motives (reference
to cadential gesture No.2) at the beginning of the B-section in Rinuccio’s
aria.
Example 8. The pitch ordering at the beginning of the
C section in Rinuccio’s aria: an expansion of cadential gesture No.3.
In the central section of the passage in analysis, as Gianni and Lauretta enter the scene and the situation is summarized, the relative motives recur accordingly. The only original gesture presented is that of the quarrel. This consists another transformation of Gianni’s motive, as it is he who causes the argument: the focus is now on the descending minor triad, expanded in an arpeggiation.
Ex. 9 Reference to Gianni’s motive in the
quarrel scene’s accompaniement.
As the motivic organization of the opera seems to rely on three principal elements, the tonal scheme seems to place the emphasis on three principal keys: Bb (beginning, and Rinuccio’s aria)- Ab (two resting points and Lauretta’s aria)- Gb (conclusive key). It seems reasonable to conclude this overview pointing out that the similarity may not be serendipitous. In fact, considering Puccini’s clever organization of all the constituent parts as interconnected elements, it may be speculated that the choice of these keys was meant to emulate the descending-second motive. This would be the greatest confirmation of the author’s employment of compositional coherence and of his astonishing grasp of dramatic unity.
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